Instructor: Professor William M. Rivera
SCHEDULE: FALL 1998:
TUESDAY AND THURSDAY
9:30-10:45 AM
LOCATION:
PLANT SCIENCES, ROOM 1168

AGRICULTURAL KNOWLEDGE SUPPORT SYSTEMS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Global forces are profoundly affecting agricultural development as well as the lives of farmers, agribusiness, and consumers. These global forces have already impacted the structure and development of agricultural knowledge systems worldwide and their potential contributution to the advancement of agriculture development.

The course examines

1. agricultural knowledge support systems, e.g., agricultural education, research and extension,--in particular agricultural extension; and considers
2. the role and influence of international organizations (e.g, the United Nations's specialized agencies, the World Bank and affiliates, regional agricultural organizations, international non-governmental organizations, and trans-national corporations) on agricultural extension as well as on agricultural education and research systems
   within the context of:
3. the present global forces affecting these agricultural knowledge support systems.

   The course also considers the commonalities and differences -- cultural, social and economic -- that exist among rural populations engaged in agriculture as a livelihood in developing countries and which affect agricultural knowledge systems and their development. This diversity is central to discussion of the trends and practices emerging in the area of agricultural knowledge and information transfer and development.

The course is intended in part to expose students to career possibilities in the international arena and in the institutional and programmatic areas of agricultural development. The University of Maryland, College Park has an advantage in being close to the Washington, DC metropolitan area and its many international institutions, including the World Bank, the U.S. Agency for International Development, the International Food Policy Research Institute, the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture, the Interamerican Development Bank, to mention only these larger entities. There are also a considerable number of private not-for-profit non-governmental organizations with interests in agriculture and agricultural information systems. As well, the area is headquarters to many multi-national corporations engaged in agricultural production, processing and marketing as well as information transfer.

The course is organized into three main parts. Part one concentrates on the concept and practice of agricultural extension, and the different systems of extension worldwide. This first part includes basic instruction in the program skills area of program needs assessment.

Part two focuses on the reforms and reform strategies affecting agricultural extension systems worldwide, and compares and contrasts these systems as to whether they promote subgovernment enhancement, power-sharing with farmers, or commercialization (privatization). This second part includes basic instruction in the skills area of program planning.

Part three examines the role of influence of international agencies and organizations on the development of agricultural extension, and suggest various scenarios for future development of extension. This third part includes basic instrument in the skills area of program evaluation.

The course involves use of textual materials, links to the internet, case studies and skills development (TLCS). Texts are in the library; links to documents will be found on the WEB; case studies are provided through class hand-outs and can be found on the internet.

The course reviews a number of well-known agricultural extension and extension-related systems. While concentrating on extension systems in low-income developing countries, these systems are compared and contrasted with those in middle-income and high-income countries, such as the United States, the United Kingdom and the OECD countries. Students are encouraged to explore (a) agricultural extension and related knowledge support services worldwide, (b) endogenous and exogenous forces fostering the transition of these knowledge support systems, and (c) the impact of international institutions and agencies on these agricultural knowledge systems. Social, cultural and ethical questions will also be addressed regarding the current transitions taking place in agriculture and the development of agricultural knowledge support systems, especially in developing countries.

Students address the following basic questions:

• What is the purpose of agricultural extension and related knowledge support systems?
• Who should control agricultural knowledge systems?
• How should agricultural knowledge systems be financed?
• Who should be served by agricultural extension?
• What program priorities should agricultural education pursue?
• Who should be responsibility for extension program implementation and delivery?

Lecture; discussion; field assignment; work groups; student presentations; visiting scholars (perhaps a seminar series); and the Internet.

Students are expected to complete all assignments, i.e.,

1. assigned readings and short reports on readings;
2. a field assignment to examine the priorities and activities of a relevant organization; and
3. write three short papers and one final paper.

   The three short papers (3-5 pages each) will examine (1) a system of agricultural extension and its development; (2) the forces for extension reform impacting a self-selected country; and (3) the influence of an international agency on extension (or other agricultural knowledge system). Near the end of the course, students will begin to develop a final paper of 10-15 pages on a relevant subject agreed to by the students and professor.

There will be mid-term and final examinations.

Grading

Grades will be allotted as follows:

			Attendance:	 	 5%
			Class preparedness: 	10%
			Class participation:	 5%
			Mid-term exam:		10%
			Final exam:		20%
			Paper 1:		10%
			Paper 2:		10%
			Paper 3:		10%
			Paper 4:		20%
					       ____
					       100%
	

Texts

Finley, E. & Price, R. (1994). International Agriculture. NY: Delmar Publishers, Inc. ISBN 0-8273-5027-9

Mosher, A.T. (1978). Introduction to Agricultural Extension. Agricultural Development Council (Winrock Int'l.). NY.

Rivera, W.M. (1991). Agricultural Extension: Worldwide Institutional Evolution and Forces for Change. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers. (ISBN: 0-444-89239-7)

For case studies, see websites. such as:
http://www.worldbank.org/extension/
http://www.fao.org/
http://www.ifad.org/
http://www.iica.org/ or .com/
http://www.cgiar.org/

These websites and others relating to international organizations with programs aimed at the development of agriculture and agricultural knowledge support systems are useful both to learn about the individual organization and to discover materials on agricultural knowledge systems.

BACKGROUND

1. Introductions. The course syllabus. Course expectations.
   

   1. How do agricultural knowledge systems (e.g., agricultural education, research and extension) work in developed and developing countries?

   2. What are the main global forces that are bringing about contemporary changes in agricultural development? And what are the consequences and implications for agricultural knowledge support systems?

   3. What constitutes an international organization? How do these organizations influence development? and, in particular, the development of agricultural knowledge support systems.

      Aside from examining general trends and practices influencing the development of agricultural knowledge support systems, students consider the cultural diversity of cultures in developing countries and the influence of cultural diversity on the development of agricultural knowledge support systems. Also, students are encouraged to clarify their philosophical and political positions underlying the main perspectives held worldwide about agricultural development.

2. Definitions: agricultural concepts, systems and programs.
   

   1. What is Agriculture? Agriculture is resources: (the three food systems, viz., croplands, rangelands, oceans; and forest foods and fibers) and trade. Pharmaceuticals. Chemicals.

   2. What is Agricultural Development? Agricultural development is the processes that foster credit, supply, research, extension, processing, storage, marketing.

   3. What are the Agricultural Knowledge Support Systems? Is each strictly functional, a process, a form of communication, a subsystem of the agricultural development, a political institution?

3. Major Issues in Agricultural Development

   1. Food Security vis-à-vis Population Growth and Production Limits
   2. Water Scarcity, Irrigation Practices and Policies, and Water Quality
   3. Harvests or Homes
   4. The Green Revolution and Sustainable Agriculture
   5. Nutrient Management and the Environment
   6. Other?

      Throughout the course, consider where you stand with respect to agricultural development. What issue or set of issues do you consider to be the most urgent at present? In the future?

      *** Are you (a) an environmental pessimist, (b) a "business-as-usual" optimist, (c) an industrialized-world-to-the-rescue believer, (d) a new modernist, or (e) sustainable intensification advocate? Other? (HANDOUT)

   
   PART I -- CONCEPTS, SYSTEMS AND PROGRAMS

4. Overview of agricultural education and extension systems.

   System: USA: a comprehensive system (W.M. Rivera). (HANDOUT)

   See website: http://worldbank.org/esd/rdv/rdvho...

5. Assessing Program Needs

   Assessing needs. An introduction to approaches and methods. (Skills Class)

   Overview: Major Extension Systems: US:CES (comprehensive), TES (political bureaucracy), T&V (management: VIDEO), TAIWAN: FIDS (farmer empowerment), CTTA (communication techniques), FSR/E (farming systems development and extension).

6. Agricultural Extension: The Innovation Adoption and Diffusion Process

   The Adoption Process: The "Dynamics of Education"

   System: The Netherlands. (W. Tacken). (HANDOUT)

7. Agricultural Extension: Fiscal Reform, Structural Decentralization and Privatization

   System: Chile (HANDOUT)

   See the Internet for more on CGIAR. (Main Hqs. are in Washington, DC, and the organization leases these offices from the World Bank.)

8. Agricultural Research: Who Owns the Product

   System: Israel (Blum, Elkana). VIDEO.

   CGIAR (International Agricultural Research Centers)

   What is the difference between "human resource development" (HRD) and "human capital"?

   Is HRD a part of Adult Education, or is Adult Education an aspect of HRD?

   Is Extension a part of Adult Education? or an aspect of HRD?

9. Work group on Agricultural Education and Extension

   HAND IN FIRST PAPER: ON A SYSTEM OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

   
   PART II -- FORCES FOR CHANGE

10. Population Growth (migration and urbanization) and the Associated Food Deficit Problem

    --Review HRD readings from section 8 above.

    --90 million a year...indefinitely!? 8.4 billion people by the year 2020! Is there a population limit? What will limit growth in human demands? Is it the ability to expand food production fast enough? Water scarcity? The agronomic limits on the capacity of available crop varieties to use additional fertilizer effectively?

    System: China. (B.E. Swanson). (HANDOUT)

11. The Expansion of International Trade and the Penetration of Competitive Global Pressures into Local Markets

    --The philosophy of "comparative advantage."

    --The relocation of companies; the export of jobs.

    System: India. (Benor, Baxter). (HANDOUT)

12. Challenges to Extension of Sustainable Agriculture & Natural Resources Management

    System: Malawi. (W.M. Rivera). (HANDOUT)

    Reading for next class:
    Finley & Price, chap. 9: "Political Aspects of World Food Production."
    Rivera, W.M. & Gustafson, D.J.; (1991); Agricultural Extension: Worldwide Institutional Evolution and Forces for Change; chap. 1 and p. 269-272.

13. Extension: Politics and World Food Production

    --From the Statehouse to the Henhouse: An Overview of Policy Development (Policies regarding World Food Production, Policies regarding Food Distribution, Government Support Systems and the Trend toward Privatization, The Evolution of the GATT into the WTO...)

    System: Uzbekistan. (W.M. Rivera). (HANDOUT)

14. General Reduction Worldwide of Public Sector Financial Resources

    --The End of the Beginning: A critical turning point for the Public Sector

    System: Peru. (FAO...IRRI, Farmer-led Extension). (HANDOUT).

    Whither Agricultural Extension Reform?

15. Work groups on Agricultural Extension Reforms

    HAND IN SECOND PAPER: ON THE FORCES FOR EXTENSION REFORM IMPACTING A COUNTRY OF INTEREST TO YOU

16. The Program Planning Process (Skill class)

    CIPMIE (Consideration, Investigation, Planning, Marketing, Implementation, Evaluation)

17. Science, Technology and Agricultural Extension

    --Private Sector Efficiency vis-à-vis the Public Good

    System: Brazil (HANDOUT)

    
    PART III -- INTERNATIONAL INFLUENCES

18. The United Nations System: Opportunity and Controversy

    System: The UN System and the Banks (HANDOUT)

    Internet/Netscape: Explore Netscape for current news on international organizations. See: web sites for The World, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, U.N. Development Program....also newspapers, e.g. NY Times, Post...

19. Program Monitoring and Evaluation

    Monitoring and Evaluation (Skills Class).

    Review: The World Food Summits, 1974 and 1996

20. Extension and the International Banks: How Development Changes!

    System: The World Bank, from T&V to privatization... (contracting for extension services). (IDB, AfDB, ADB, EDB)

21. The Specialized and Regional Agencies: Institutional Capacity Building

    System: FAO (Pluralism and Strategic Extension Campaigns)

22. Bilateral Assistance Agencies: Aid or Cooperation

    System: USAID (Diminishment of Agriculture Programs)

23. International Non-Governmental Organizations: the New Partner

    System: WSAA -- World Sustainable Agriculture Association (NGO)

    24. International Corporations: Suppliers to the World

    Systems: Company Contract Systems (KTDA, Dupont, Pioneer...)

    NEXT TIME:

24. Work group on IOs and their Influence on Agricultural Extension

    HAND IN THIRD PAPER: ON THE INFLUENCE OF AN INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION ON EXTENSION (OR OTHER AGRICULTURAL KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM)

    The Future of Agricultural Knowledge Support Systems

    In the next three classes, be prepared to discuss current developments and the future of agricultural extension and other agricultural knowledge support systems (research and agricultural education systems).

    The Future of Agricultural Knowledge Support Systems:

25. Government and the Private Sector

26. New Technologies (e.g., Biological, Ecological, Telecommunications)

27. A New and Growing Clientele

28. Class Review and Evaluation

29. Final Examination

-- GOOD LUCK --

Suggested Readings on: Agricultural Knowledge Support Systems in Developing Countries

Bailey, L.H. (Ed.). (1898), The Principles of Agriculture. London: Macmillan.

Baum, W.C. & Tolbert, S.M. (1985). Investing in Agriculture. Washington, DC: The World Bank.

Berry, W. (1977). The Unsettling of America: Culture and Agriculture. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books.

Brown, L.R. & Kane, H.; (1994); Full House. Washington, DC: Worldwatch.

Carson, R. (1962). Silent Spring. Greenwich, CT: Fawcett.

Chambers, R.; Pacey, A.; & Thrupp, L.A.; (Eds.). (1989). Farmer First: Farmer Innovation and Agricultural Research. London: Intermediate Technology Publications.

Farrington, J. & Bebbington, A. (1993). Reluctant Partners: Non-Governmental Organizations, the State and Sustainable Agricultural Development. NY: Routledge.

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (1990). Global Consultation on Agricultural Extension, Rome, Italy, 4-8 December 1989. Rome: FAO, Agricultural Education and Extension Service (ESHE).

Howell, J. (Ed.). (1985). Recurrent Costs and Agricultural Development. London: Overseas Development Institute.

Jones, M. & Mann, P. (Eds.). (1992). HRD: International Perspectives on Development and Learning. West Hartford, CT: Kumarian.

Kreisberg, M. (1984). International Organizations and Agricultural Development. (Foreign Agriculture Report 131). Washington, DC: USDA, OICD.

Lynton, R.P. & Pareek, U. (1990). Training for Development. 2nd ed. West Hartford, CT: Kumarian. ISBN 0-931816-76-9

Mellor, J.W.; (1986); Agriculture on the Road to Industrialization; IN: J.L. Lewis & V. Kallab (Eds.), Development Strategies Reconsidered; New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.

Oakley et al. (1991). Projects with People: the Practice of Participation in Rural Development. Geneva: International Labour Office.

Rivera, W.M. & Gustafson, D.J. (Eds.). (1991). Agricultural Extension: Worldwide Institutional Evolution and Forces for Change. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers.

Rivera, W.M. & Schram, S.G. (Eds.). (1987). Agricultural Extension Worldwide: Issues, Practices and Emerging Priorities. London: Croom Helm/ Methuen.

United Nations Development Program. (1994). Sustainable Human Development and Agriculture. NY: UNDP

The World Bank. (annual). World Development Report(s). Washington, DC.

The World Bank. (1991). From Extension to Agricultural Information Management:Issues and Recommendations from World Bank Experience in the Middle East and North Africa. (W. Zijp). Washington, DC.